Modern Armenian Literature

Constantinople, Tiflis, Venice, Chief Centers

After the extinction of their political life, in the old homeland as well as in Cilicia, the Armenians established colonies in many lands, carrying with them the love of their language and literature. In their various alien environments, their thoughts turned with deep veneration to their ancient authors, whom they considered the champions of their national independence. Great numbers of Armenian literary centers came, therefore, into being all over the world. The remoteness of these from each other and the environment in which they developed, must naturally have influenced the direction in which each of them advanced. The Russian spirit and the German language — which was then fashionable in the land of the Tsars — exerted their influence on the Armenian communities in Moscow and Tiflis. In Constantinople, Smyrna, Venice and other Western communities, the French, Italian, and Greek cultures became p407models, while the study of the French language and literature became predominant in the Armenian high
schools of Turkey.

The new literature thus began to develop in all branches — drama, fiction, epic poetry, satire. Works on history, archaeology, philology, sociology, science, law, politics, etc., appeared on bookshelves. Among the centers in which modern Armenian literature blossomed and flourished were Constantinople, Smyrna, Jerusalem, Etchmiadzin, Tiflis, Moscow and Vienna, with Venice topping all of them. The Monastery on the island of St. Lazar, in close proximity to Venice, which the Senate of that Republic had granted to the Congregation of Mekhitarists in 1717, became until the middle of the nineteenth century and beyond an intellectual beacon for the Armenians of the world.
17th Century Renaissance

With the seventeenth century, there burst forth a renaissance of Armenian literature, when writers in Russia, and later on, in Turkey, ventured to use the vernacular (ashkharabar), rather than the classical language. Abbot Mekhitar, himself the founder of the St. Lazar Congregation, had compiled a grammar of the modern Armenian speech. Books, pamphlets and periodical publications helped towards this transformation by popularizing the National and foreign works, which were until then within the reach of only a few men of erudition. The effect of this movement on the welding of the thought and sentiment of the masses and in creating a public opinion, was most remarkable.
Mekhitar, the Abbot (1676‑1749)

Mekhitar was born in Sivas, his baptismal name being Manoug. His early training was entrusted to Armenian nuns, and he was ordained a deacon at the age of fourteen. Spurred by a keen desire for learning, he journeyed to Etchmiadzin, but was disappointed in his expectations there. Three months later, he went to the cloister of Lake Sevan, where he found solace in a vision of St. Mary. On his way back to Sivas, he stopped at Erzerum, and at the request of the Superior of the Monastery of Passen, remained there a year, instructing the students. At the end of that time, deciding that the environment was unfavorable, he returned home. But the exertions of travel were too much for his frail constitution, and he fell ill. For a year, his eyesight was threatened. When he recovered his p408health, he was consecrated Vardapet at the age
of twenty. With wide knowledge and effective eloquence, he began to preach. He was now ready for the realization of his favorite objective — the creation of a brotherhood for service in the spiritual and intellectual fields.

With the hope of visiting Rome, Mekhitar left Sivas in 1695, his first stopping place being the port of Alexandretta. There he boarded a boat for Cyprus, but during his short stay at Alexandretta he had contracted malaria, which made him unwelcome on board the vessel. A good Samaritan rowed him ashore, whence he was taken by others to the Armenian monastery of St. Macar. There, through the summer months, he suffered from neglect and contempt on the part of the so‑called pious ascetics.2 The sickly, penniless priest returned to Sivas and retired to the monastery of St. Nishan, near that city. In 1696 Mekhitar made a trip to Constantinople, calling there upon Khatchadour Vardapet, a famous scholar, for advice and aid. The latter could not be granted for lack of funds. While in Constantinople, Mekhitar gathered a dozen disciples, and translated and published several books, among them The Imitation of Christ, by Thomas à Kempis.

Suspecting him of being a Latinist agent, the patriarch of Constantinople, Avediq, planned to have him imprisoned, but Mekhitar took refuge in the monastery of the Capuchins (mendicant friars). Here, in company with his disciples, he formally founded a religious order dedicated to St. Mary, on September 8th,º 1701. Shortly afterward he sent a few of his disciples to Morea (Peloponnesus) in Greece, then under Venetian rule. He then escaped to Smyrna, and a little later, to Morea, at the very time when the Turkish police were searching for him. The Venetian government gave the Mekhitarist order a large tract of land on which to build a church and a monastery, and the order was placed under the protection of the Pope.

When Morea was threatened by the Turks, the congregation was transferred to Venice in 1717, and because the Senate could not legally donate land or buildings to religious institutions, the Island of St. Lazar, on which there was already an ancient church, was transferred to that body. There had been an Armenian colony in p409Venice since the thirteenth century, enjoying privileges or grants such as a bridge and a
cemetery. Among them were commission agents, printers and ship-owners. They helped the new congregation financially. The monks prayed, worked, and studied. As expressed by Victor Langlois, they stood on European soil, "with eyes turned towards the Levant, the cradle of the Armenian race."

When Mekhitar died, the once-barren island had been transformed into a center of Armenian culture. "Mekhitar was a model of sanctity and studiousness," says Fr. Janashian, "his disciples saw in him a pattern of the real and learned master. He taught to work with collective effort and academic character. The beautifully printed Bible which he published and the magnificent Armenian Dictionary he compiled demonstrate this." (History of Modern Armenian Literature, Venice, 1953.)

The printing of the Bible was a colossal achievement. Mekhitar was not content with the Bible of Oskan Vardapet, printed in Amsterdam in 1666. Oskan's corrections were made according to a Latin text. Being desirous of comparing it with a Greek text, Mekhitar obtained a copy of the "Seven-Language Bible," printed in Paris in 1645, containing the Hebrew, Syriac, Greek, Latin, Arabic, Chaldean and Samaritan texts. The comparison and printing of the work occupied three years. Also among Mekhitar's works are a Grammar of the Classical Armenian, Book of Virtues, a Grammar of Modern Armenian, etc. He took great pains in purifying the language from its latinization by the Unitors, without injuring the sensibilities of the Romanic zealots. His name has received international recognition, and the Roman Catholic Church has elevated him to the rank of Beatitude.a
Michael Tchamtchian (1733‑1823)

Foremost among Mekhitar's pupils was Father Michael Tchamtchian, author of a History of Armenia. Although based upon national and foreign sources, the authenticity of which has been attacked by recent critics, Tchamtchian's work has great value as the first systematized and chronologically set compendium of twenty centuries of the history of Armenia and neighboring countries. Moreover, he merits recognition for his untiring perseverance which, even under unfavorable conditions, accomplished the printing of the three large volumes in a little more than five years (1781‑1786).
p410Injijian and others

The Geography of Ancient Armenia, by another of Mekhitar's pupils, Father Lucas Injijian, is one of several monumental works of that author. Fr. Agontz Cuver, also a geographer; Frs. M. Aucher (Avkerian), Kh. Surmelian and G. Avetikian produced in collaboration the great "Dictionary of the Armenian Language" in two large volumes. Arsen Bagratouni, an eminent poet, author of "Haik the Hero," and of the "Grammar for Advanced Students" and the translator of Homer, Vergil, Racine, Voltaire and Alfieri; Archbishop Edward Hurmuz, poet and translator of Vergil's Aeneid and Fenelon's Telemachus, and Father Eghia Tomajan, translator of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey must not be omitted.

Others to be mentioned for their varied literary accomplishments are the Fathers Basile Sarkissian, G. Zarbhanelian, H. Thorossian, S. Eremian, S. Eprikian, A. Ghazikian, G. Der Sahakian, V. Hatsouni, S. Der Movsessian.
Ghevond Alishan (1820‑1901)

Another Mekhitarist scholar of stature is Father Ghevon (Leontius) Alishan. He was born in Constantinople and given the baptismal name of Keropeh (Cherub). At the age of twelve he was sent to St. Lazar Seminary. Returning to Constantinople after graduation, he was ordained priest in 1840.

He appears next in Paris as a professor in the Mooradian College, of which he eventually became the Dean. In this capacity, he was a source of inspiration to great numbers of Armenian students from Turkey, Egypt, Persia and Russia, some of whom later filled high governmental positions, or served the Armenian nation as professors, journalists and spiritual leaders.

In 1872 Alishan retired from educational and administrative work, and devoted his time thereafter to scholarly research and activity — archaeology, geography, mythology, philology, poetry, etc. and published many books, from his own pen or translations, and several valuable manuscripts. His ardent patriotism and vast erudition made him the most popular writer of his time. His fiftieth anniversary in religious and literary work was celebrated in 1890. He died in 1901 at the age of 81.

Of the fully one hundred works of Father Alishan, perhaps the most elaborate ones are, Souvenirs of the Homeland — Shirak; Sissouan, p411Ayrarat, Sissakan, Hayapatoum in two volumes.

These works — philological, geographical and historical — have a decidedly poetical cast. In fact, Alishan's rightful place in literature would be among the poets, even though he wrote mostly in prose. His language — the classical, the modern and the vernacular — has an original and individual tone. Several of his works have been translated into European languages, among them Sissouan into French. A. Tchobanian says of him, "His chant is the sublimest, the richest, the most vigorous and the most diverse that the Armenian lyre has sounded in modern times." As some critics see him, fervent patriotism dominated Alishan's writing, at the expense of scientific objectives. Nevertheless, despite his charming originality, he seems to have been influenced at times by Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Hugo, Goethe and Schiller.
Vienna Group

The Mekhitarist Congregation of Vienna, which had its beginning in 1774, has been interested more particularly in philological and historical studies, and has published translations from works in the German language. Their polyglot printing press capable of turning out artistic work is considered one of the best in the Austrian capital. The Mekhitarists of Vienna have produced many eminent scholars, such as S. Tornian, H. Katerjian, M. Karakashian, A. Aydenian, G. Menevishian, G. Sibilian, S. Dervishian, H. Dashian, G. Hovanian, G. Kalemkiarian, and N. Akinian.

Archbishop Arsen Aydenian (1825‑1902), was of encyclopedic mind and mastered ten languages, ancient and modern. He was conversant with the pure sciences — mathematics and cosmography — also the fine arts, including music, design and engraving. Western scholars admired the universality of his culture. His great work, a Critical Grammar of the Modern Armenian Language is a masterpiece on Armenian philology.

Another star in the Vienna constellation was Rev. Hagopos Dashian (1806‑1933)º He was a first-rank scholar. His head, it was said, was a library, comparable with that of Alishan. We have from him studies on Agathangelos, Pseudo-Callisthenes,º Armenian Paleography, the Legend of Abgar, etc. Special attention is due to his stupendous Catalogue of the Armenian Manuscripts of the Mekhitarists of Vienna and his Study of the Armenian Classical Language, originally outlined by Fr. K. Spenian.
p412Awakening in Turkey

The first step towards the diffusion of modern Armenian literature in Turkey was taken by Apcar of Tokat. He had founded an Armenian press in Venice in 1565, forty-three years after the one established there by an Italian. In 1567 Apcar, assisted by Arakel, the monk, set up a printing house in Constantinople, too. Others followed their example, publishing books mostly for use in churches.
Yeremia Keumurjian

The outstanding of the new period in Turkey was Yeremia Keumurjian, called Tchélébie, a title of honor given by the Turks to Christian laymen of high standing. Yeremia, a member of an aristocratic Armenian family, was a man of culture, well versed in the Turkish, Greek and Latin languages, as well as in his own mother tongue. He wrote a History of the Ottoman Sovereigns and a Description of Istambul; he translated parts of the Armenian history of Khorenatsi into Turkish, at the request of Turkish scholars. He died in 1695.
Hovhannes Golod and others

Hovhannes Golod, Patriarch of Constantinople from 1715 to 1741, himself an erudite man, encouraged the enterprises of printing and book-publishing. Patriarch Hagop Nalian (1741‑49, 1752‑64) was a theologian and writer of distinction. Grigor Peshtimaljian, who died in 1837, was a lay educator of renown, as well as a poet and grammarian.
Nahabed Roussinian (1819‑1886) and others

Armenian literature in Turkey was strongly influenced by nineteenth century writers of France, where a considerable number of young Armenians had received their higher education. Foremost among these was Dr. Nahabed Roussinian, who championed the cause of the modern Armenian language (Ashkharhabar) as a medium in public schools, instead of the classic Grabar. He succeeded in achieving his objective, but he failed in his grammatical innovations. In reform movements in general, as well as in administrative and educational branches, Roussinian had distinguished associates, such as Hagop Balian, Mgrditch Agathon and Krikor Odian. These men also played important roles in the affairs of the State. p413Garabed Panosian, an outspoken journalist, was another advocate of progressive ideas. His proposals in 1864 for
certain canonical reforms, the institution of divorce, for example, raised a storm of protest on the part of Church authorities. Mgrditch Beshiktashlian (1828‑1868) left his mark upon his national literature as a professor of the Armenian language, and particularly as a poet and playwright, reviving heroic Armenian deeds and figures of the past. Another poet and playwright, versed in European classics, was Thomas Terzian. Archbishop Khoren Narbey, eloquent preacher and brilliant personality, was also a linguist and poet — lyric and elegiac.
Writers of Smyrna

The city of Smyrna, half Greek and half European in culture, the adopted home of a small Armenian community, was another hive of intellectual activity. In 1840 it gave birth to the weekly Arshalouys Araratian (The Dawn of Ararat), founded by Lucas Baltazarian. Other periodicals that followed were the Arpee Araratian (The sun of Ararat), Dzaghik (the Flower), Meteora and Arevelian Mamoul (The Eastern Press). Madteos Mamourian, editor of the last-named monthly, as well as Grigor Tchilinkirian were translators of several European works — the Werther of Goethe, Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, Victor Hugo's Les Misérables, the novels of Dumas, Eugene Sue, etc. Among the prominent literary figures of Smyrna in the nineteenth century were Stepan Oscan, Caloust Constantian, Grigor Mserian and Mesrop Nubarian.